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Terrorism in the Muslim Context
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July 26
2010
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War has been a
historic feature of human existence and as one of mans oldest professions
for; expansion, conquest, liberation and irredentism. War in itself is a form
of terror characterized by killings, massacres, rapes, hangings, executions
of warring factions and armies and civilians bearing the brunt of these
terror tactics. The new discourse on
terrorism has largely been re-shaped from Reagan’s 1981 administrations war
against the state sponsored terrorism, with the phenomena: the Iranian
revolution in ’79; Lockerbie incident of ’88 and the horrific ’72 Germany
summer Olympics incident, to the contemporary period of post September 11.
Perceptively, for some, it may seem as a clash of civilizations as depicted
by Samuel Hurtington. So what really is terrorism? Does it only exist in a
Muslim context? Should there be a distinction between State terrorism and non
state terrorism, who employ tactics of terror and why? What does “War on
terror mean”? Isn’t war in itself terror? International relations semantics
could be at play with classifications such axis of evil and “smoking them
from their holes”. This paper explores the definition of terrorism and its
global context. It presupposes that terrorism is a worldwide phenomenon from
LRAs Joseph Kony in Northern Uganda; recent bombings in Kampala; Alshabab in
Somalia; Mungiki in Kenya; US Drone attacks in Pakistan; U.S invasion of
Afghanistan and Iraq, U.S toppling of nationally elected leaders like Mohamed
Mossadeh of Iran in the 1950s, Blackwater in Iraq; India’s occupation of
Kashmir; and the Zionist creation of “State of Israel” state repression; IDF
bombings on Palestine are such diverse examples. All these show how wide and
complex the discourse on terrorism is.
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Submitted By: Franklin Mwirigi Murianki
Submitted To: Vice Rector Prof. Amr Abdallah
Terrorism has been around as a major nuisance to governments since
recorded history. The Bible advocated terror, assassination, and
annihilation (see the book of Numbers and book of Joshua). Regicide, or the killing of kings and loyalists by rivals, has been an
established pattern of political ascent since Julius Caesar (44 B.C.).
The Zealots in Israel (100 A.D.) fought Roman occupation with hit-and-run tactics in
public places. The Assassins in Iraq (1100 A.D.) fought the Christian Crusaders with suicide
tactics. The Thuggees in India (1300 A.D.) kidnapped travelers for sacrifice to their
Goddess. The Spanish Inquisition (1469-1600) dealt
with heretics by systematized torture, and the whole medieval era was based on
terrorizing countryside. The French Revolution (1789-1795) coined the phrase
"reign of terror." The Luddites (1811-1816) destroyed machinery and any symbol of modern
technology. A Serb terrorist (1914) started World War I. Hitler's
rise to power (1932) involved terror. Nations like Ireland, Cyprus,
Algeria, Tunisia, and Israel probably would not exist if not for terrorism, and
more than a few people would say the United States was founded on
terrorism. However defined, it's clear that terrorism has shaped world
history significantly. In the broad scheme of things that Williams (1999)
observes, terrorism has played an important role in history by forcing
societies to make hard choices between degrees of liberty and tyranny.[2]
Contents
INTRODUCTION
The British Imperial power and other European powers used subordination
and domination over satellite states, protectorates as well as colonies
worldwide. This subjugation of others and suppression of indigenous cultures
and civilizations, raw material extraction by foreigners and social engineering
of political and cultural histories, left, till today, numerous countries
reeling under economic strangulation, neoimperialist economic manipulation as
well as massive social upheavals. With winds of independence sweeping across
continents at different historical points, many nations had to free themselves
from the colonial yoke, by employing means of violence and terror unmatched
though by the colonial powers that used advanced force of newly manufactured
weapons of mass destruction like gun powder, or atomic bombs that are the
preserve of those nations. The Second World War witnessed the U.S test nuclear
weapons on Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Are these also then considered as terrorism,
state terrorism?
The events of September 11, 2001 changed the West’s perception and policy
toward Muslim Countries and its internal policing in Homeland security and in
the enactment of the highly controversial Patriot Act. This immediately
followed with the October invasion of Afghanistan by the US, UK[3] and other friendly states its mission to route out the Taliban and all
“terrorists” or against any other
State harboring, sheltering, supporting, aiding or abetting “terrorists” in
response to the horrific tragedy and tremendous devastation resulting from the
September attacks.[4]
On the other hand, the Taliban regime, at the time of the suicide hijackings
controlling most of Afghanistan, condemned the use of American, and British,
armed force against Afghanistan as a “terrorist act.”[5]
This accusations and counteraccusations show the complexity of defining what
terrorism is.
DEFINITION OF TERRORISM
Terrorism is a controversial phenomenon with no universally
accepted definition. The old adage that one man’s terrorist is another man
freedom fighter still holds true.
Terrorism is a
method of combat in which random or symbolic victims become targets of
violence. Through the repeated use of violence or the credible threat of
violence, members of another group are put in a state of chronic fear
(terror). The victimization of the target is considered extranormal by
most observers...which in turn creates an audience beyond the target of
terror.... The purpose of terrorism is either to immobilize the target of
terror in order to produce disorientation and/or compliance, or to mobilize
secondary targets of demand or targets of attention[6]. One must
distinguish between the target of violence and the targets of attention.
The target of violence involves the innocent victims. There are three
targets of attention: the target of terror; the target of demand; and the
target of influence. The target of terror refers to people who are in the
same class or category as the victims. The target of demand (similar to
extortion and ransom kidnapping) is what a government, business, or leader must
do in order to save lives. The target of influence is the Western world
as a whole or the establishment or a silent majority.[7] It is toward
these multiple audiences of attention that terrorist violence is directed
against, and it is always combined with a sense of randomness and extranormality that it compels
horrified attention.
The terms terror, terrorism, and terrorist do not identify
causally coherent and distinct social phenomena but strategies that recur
across a wide variety of actors and political situations. Social scientists who
reify the terms confuse themselves and render a disservice to public
discussion.[8]
This highlights the political nature of terrorist attacks that a non state
actor may use violence by bombing civilian and governmental agencies so as to
coerce them to Peace Agreements or to change their policies on certain issues.
Additionally, the U.S State Department
defines terrorism as "politically motivated violence perpetrated against
noncombatant targets by sub national groups or clandestine agents, usually
intended to influence an audience" [9].
This definition looses out the crunch of governments illegitimate use of force
on its own citizens or citizens of another state. The US Government has been
involved or implicated in the overthrow of democratically elected leaders of approximately
50 nations in the world by assassination, overthrows, torture, funding of rebel
movements and contras.[10]
Should self- determination and liberation struggles be viewed as terrorism or
do they fall under the use of law for a peoples self determination cause. The
discourse on International terrorism is blurred by conservative views as those
of Samuel Hunghtinton that the biggest problem to the U.S is Islam itself[11].
This assumptions are incorrect and do not reflect the reality of the
International polity. The underlying clash of civilization in my view would be
as a result of one civilization/superpower imposing its culture, economy, and
governance structure to the rest of the world through economic and military
coercion.
Since 9/11 Islam has been demeaned
as a religion of violence and Muslims have subsequently been targeted by racial
profiling, mosque invasions, and being looked down upon. Terrorism has
inadvertently then been linked to Islam. This is an unfortunate misnomer that
most scholars, policy makers and lay people do not want to address. This
Islamaphobia has currently led to European parliaments passing laws against
hijab and Islamic way of dressing for women. These will consequently exasperate
already heightened tensions between these governments and their Muslim
citizens. Perceptions, policy, partisan media too all mold the discourse of
terrorism. For instance if a bombing goes off in Iraq, governments are quick to
condemn it as Islamists/Islamic terrorists’, yet when the LRA rebel group slits
civilian throats, kills, maims and rapes innocent women and children,
governments as well as international media do not necessarily classify it as
terrorism or when the State of Israel decides to deploy a precision guided
missile to assassinate a crippled Hamas leader who is on a wheel chair, or when
a state deploys Unmanned Vehicles to bomb civilian targets in Afghanistan and
Pakistan, these events are never sited as terrorist events. Therefore to a lay
man or an international security specialist the War on Terror may strictly seem
to be a war waged by the U.S on the Islamic world for reasons of geopolitical
strategy and resources.
It is for these reasons that the
West and other states must learn and understand Islam and why the phenomenon of
suicide bombings is present more so in the Islamic context. An account of Islam
is therefore befitting.
Short History Of Islam
It is impossible to provide a comprehensive treatment of the
history of Islam in a brief space. To Muslims the life of Mohamed is a story revered in its
mysteries as much as its certainties’ that are beliefs held sacred. Muhammad, a
prophet astute in statecraft and military strategy and
an inspired statesman, changed the history and destiny of Arabia and of much of
the
world. He was born about 570 to the Banu Hashim family, reputable merchants in the tribe of Quraysh in Mecca. He was a merchant and Khadija, the widow of a rich
merchant, somewhat older than himself. He probably engaged in trade, and is
said by some to have had responsibilities in connection with the Ka'aba stone. When he was about forty years old he began preaching
a new religion, eventually meeting the opposition of Meccan oligarchy. Initially,
Muhammad made few converts and many enemies. His first converts were Khadija,
Ali (who became the husband of Fatima), and Abu-Bakr[12].
Warfare and conflict were the grim realities of the time, which
after Islam came to be called the Jahiliya times. Each clan had its own gods as
tokens and was kept in the Kaaba.
In a cave in Mecca, an angel was sent to appear before him
instructing him to recite in the name of Allah. And this was the beginning of
the Wahi and the proclamation was that there is none to be worshipped except
Allah and Mohammed is His Prophet[13].This proclamation
hence meant one people and at the time Mecca was riddled with family and clan
ties. Mohamed (PBUH) had a strong social message that brought a new order. This
hence meant equality and universal appeal. Mohammed’s
teaching inevitably led him into conflict with the natives of Mecca, most
notably the Quraysh tribe. The Quraysh were then
against him and wanted to kill him but his uncle helped him for a while until
he was exiled in Medina to find refuge. A large number of Medinans, known as the Ansar (helpers), were attracted to Muhammad's cause.
In medina he signed a treaty of mutual understanding with Christians and Jews. Battles
were fought against the Quraish the first being the Battle of Badr where
Mohamed (pbuh) and his sahaba and Ansars’ won. The Battle of Uhud followed
where heavy losses were inflicted on the Muslims. After Muhamad(PBUH) and his
swahaba conquered Mecca, the Muslim community grew and a life of devotion to
Allah grew and societal solidarity. The Muslims turned into the North swept
into present day Lebanon and Syria and to the west Egypt and across North
Africa. The empire stretched from Moroco in the west to the Indus River in the
East. In 632 AD Mohamed (pbuh) died and succession issues took hold, this is
when the Revelations and verses that the early Muslims preserved by heart, was
compiled in a book called the Quran. There emerged caliphates who ruled in
Islamic Law and the caliphates sought conquest and Islam spread to three
continents. With the spread of Islam, Baghdad became the hub of Islamic
scholarship and innovation. Medicine, mathematics, philosophy and all faculties
were studied.
In 1099, the crusaders entered
Jerusalem and committed atrocities and massacres and even Christians were not
spared.[14]The crusaders used terror and
killed without second thought and with impunity. Salahudin would come and expel
the crusaders from Jerusalem. Years later the Mongols invasion occurred in the
13th century. And was thereafter taken over by the Ottoman Turks.[15]With the fall of the Ottoman Empire
the rise of the British Empire rose and conquered from the Middle East, Asia
and Africa. This conquest brought about conflict between the colonial masters
and local populations as the clonisers created artificial states nations states
from Syria, Lebanon Iraq, Palestine were all to divide and rule the people of the colonized states.In Middle East, one of the cradles of civilization and also Islamic
civilization. The struggle for
independence and the nation state building
proved an uphill task as other regions too. The historical Islamic
empire and Golden age became the hopes and dream for another Islamic ummah that
would emerge again.
Concept of Jihad in Islam
“To do so, we will have to dispense with all sentimentality
and day-dreaming... We should cease to talk about vague and...unreal objectives
such as human rights, the raising of the living standards, and democratization.
The day is not far off when we are going to have to deal in straight power
concepts. The less we are then hampered by idealistic slogans, the better.”
—George
Kennan
Director of Policy Planning U.S. State
Department 1948
“Jihad”, this word, has been used so
frequently and extensively in the sense of 'holy war' that most people believe
this is what it means. This is an ignorant inference. The examination of the
term using the Quran and Sunna would give a different meaning. The word jihad
literally means 'striving', 'struggle', but it is not a striving just in war
situations. Jihad can take many forms. At its most basic level, jihad is a struggle
with one's self, to overcome un-Islamic thoughts and desires and live in
accordance with Allah's will.[16]
Therefore, activity like praying, fasting, and refraining from un-Islamic
activities like drinking alcohol and gambling, all count as jihad. Secondly,
jihad is striving to spread and establish Islam. The Qur'an instructs all
Muslims to 'Enjoin good and forbid evil.'[17]
This too can take many forms, ranging from telling non-Muslims about the
message of the Qur'an, to analysis social situations from a religious prism, to
forming Islamic political parties and contesting in elections with the aim of
setting up an Islamic government. But Muslims are not allowed to use force to
convert people to Islam. The Qur'an stresses: 'There is no compulsion in religion,
for the truth has been made manifest from the false.'[18]Furthermore,
it enjoins respect for Christians and Jews as 'People of the Book' and lays
down guidelines for treatment of non-Muslims. In this larger context, 'to
enjoin good and forbid evil' is a message for all humanity. Thirdly, jihad is a
struggle against aggression and oppression. Wherever there is oppression,
injustice, or Muslims are denied the freedom to worship, struggling to liberate
them is jihad:(M)ake peace between them (the two fighting groups), but if one
of the two persists in aggression against the other, fight the aggressors until
they revert to God's commandment.[19]Whoever
transgresses against you, retaliate likewise against him, and fear Allah, and
know that Allah is with those who fear him.[20]And
what is wrong with you that you do not fight in the cause of Allah, and for
those weak, ill treated and oppressed among men, women, and children, whose cry
is: Our Lord! Rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors.[21]From these above Quranic
verses and hadith illustrate what Jihad really means and also that since those who are 'weak, ill treated and
oppressed' may also include non-Muslims, this jihad is to be done on their
behalf as well. The means employed for such jihad could be economic, politics,
diplomacy; military weapons are in fact only to be used as a last resort. There
are strict guidelines for the use of force and they cannot be indiscriminate.
Muslims can only fight those committing aggression or oppression; women,
children, the sick and elderly cannot be attacked; once the aggressors have
been defeated or they give up their aggression, fighting must stop. From this
description of the concept of jihad in Islam, it should be clear that this
encompasses far more than 'waging holy war'. Furthermore, the circumstances in
which Muslims are allowed to resort to force are limited and well defined.
Islam certainly does not urge its followers to wage indiscriminate war against
all non-Muslims. In brief, contrary to popular Western beliefs, Islam is not a
religion of war but strongly advocates peace: O you who have found faith, enter
peace wholly.[22]
The main concept as explained has to be analyzed in context too. I therefore
use two cases to illustrate the phenomenon in different Muslim nations.
CASE STUDIES
AFGHANISTAN
[The Afghan jihad refers to the period
of resistance to communist rule, particularly the Soviet forces, from 1979 to
the early 1990s. It does not refer to the in fighting that has been going on
since the withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan.][23]Afghanistan
had been under communist rule since 1973, with the stronger Khalq party taking
over in 1978. Prior to the take-over by the communists, the country had been
ruled by a central regime heavily dependent on local power holders - loyalty
was bought with patronage[24].
Afghan society has traditionally been very religious but also very divided
along ethnic, tribal and sectarian lines. On to this decentralized and
conservative society. It is under this circumstances that the Russian-backed
communists tried to impose centralization by introducing a myriad in the social
structures of marriage, education system and land ownership. And challenged the
traditional set-up. The Afghans who take a lot of pride in their culture,
religion and traditions resisted, they resisted the changes, even with
violence. By 1979, the level of resistance and anti-government feeling was such
that the Khalq regime was on the verge of collapse. When the Soviet troops
intervened in 79,the perception among the Afghans was that this was a colonial
invasion inherently to control the Muslim country. The resistance took many
forms: local revolts under traditional social leadership, mutinies within the
armed forces, urban uprisings involving Islamists, etc. The Soviets responded
to this resistance by employing brute force of advanced weaponry; civilian
populations indiscriminately bombed and leaders were assassinated enmasse. Government repression was severe. "Mass
arrests were commonly followed by torture and execution without trial. Police
terror was common in the city as well as the countryside, where virtually all
social groups joined in the rebellion. More than two million Afghans fled their homes[25],
becoming refugees.
The Islamic jihad element in the resistance
made for them to be united in purpose of ridding the country off the infidels. This rebellion was one to
fight against oppression and occupation more so from an atheist oppressor. The
Afghan mujahideen, received substantial support from outside sources, notably
the United States and Saudi Arabia, as well as of course the shelter of
Pakistan which became the front-line state in the war against the Soviets[26].
The US backed the mujahideen despite their waging an overtly Islamic war, the
reason being its greater hostility to the communist superpower. Saudi Arabia
was motivated partly by self-preservation and partly by a sense of Muslim
brotherhood. U.S and Saudi aid ran into billions of dollars as well as 10,000 tons of arms and ammunition in 1983.The CIA aided the
mujahedeed through funding the ISI of Pakistan. Human resources too were
growing and a as people from other parts of the
Muslim world were drawn to fight with the Afghan mujahideen in the Jihad.
Resistance groups were under considerable pressure to unite, and to some extent
they did. The pressure, the aid, and the greatest motive to drive the hated
Soviets out of the country coupled with the sense of waging jihad, eventually
paid off. Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan in 1991.
The prior Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979,
had inspired Muslims across the world to emulate the revolution and make
Islamic government their ambition. The Soviets were ejected out of Afghanistan
and soon after the Soviet Union collapsed.[27] Soon
after Afghanistan too was embroiled in old and traditional rivalries and social
fragmentation that saw the Taliban take over. This case shows how the
Afghan Muslims and the Muslim of the world, were united in a struggle or Jihad
against an invading state. The same could be said of the current US invasion
Afghanistan on the pretext of War on Terror.
Consequently, the foreign Muslims who had
traveled far off to Afghanistan to aid in the Jihad went back home to their
countries and some began radical movements envisioning the creation of Islamic
societies, rule and governance.
PALESTINE
Palestinian anger towards Israel and the Jews
has been present for many decades, along with resistance to their rule, but it
is only since the mid-1980s that this acquired an Islamic character. Prior to that
the Palestinian freedom struggle was waged as a secular, nationalist liberation
movement. Only after 1987, was it described as a Jihad.[28] The bone of contention since 1948 has been
the Israel occupation of Palestine. The Palestinians claim to have been
disenfranchised in their own land and this has brought a lot of resentment to
the occupation. Israel government policy on the other hand
has been that of Land confiscations and Israel settlement expansion. Over 52
percent of land in the West Bank and close to 40 percent of land in Gaza has
come under Israeli control since 1967[29].
This has seriously affected the Palestinians' ability to earn a living since
farmland that used to be theirs is now gone. Curfews, restrictions on movement
s well as restrictions on anything going to Gaza has negatively impacted the
Palestinians and 70%[30]
of whom live on less than one dollar a day. Part of the international community
protested and took up the issue in the Security Council as with Israel Courts
but in both cases the U.S was firmly assisting the Israelis and international
laws implementation is non existent and hence Israel can do whatever it deems
fit in the occupied territories.
The element of jihad only became significant
in the Palestinian struggle towards the end of the 1980s as Yasser Arafat's
PLO, which had initially enjoyed huge popular support among Palestinians, saw
its popularity decline because of its failure to deliver on its promises,[31]as
well as growing factionalism in the PLO camp. This plummeting in ratings if the
PLO led to power vacuums were to be filled by Islamist groups. As was the
case in Afghanistan, the Iranian revolution had awakened the thinking of the
golden Islamic age and the zeal to create Islamic governments where possible.
The Shabra and Shatila massacres of 81 and the
continued hard stance of the Israeli government and war machinery encouraged
the growth and rapid expansion of militant jihadi Islam. Militant groups formed
and challenged the occupation by use of violence against the Israeli authorities, which won it
widespread support among Palestinians.
The killing of four Palestinians triggered
mass protests and officially started the intifada on December 8, 1987.This
manifested itself in civil protest, stone pelting by the youth and attacks
on Israel patrols. The objective of the Islamists was to create a Palestine
wide revolt and the end of Israeli rule and complete liberation for the
Palestinians. The intifada is some ways ushered in the jihad element and the do
or die mentality hence the culmination of suicide bombers and the targeting of
Israel populated cities like Jerusalem. The Palestinians we wiling to die for
their cause as matyrs. The Israel war machinery was unleashed and they resorted
to assassinations, torture, massacres and killings to put down the revolts.
Most Palestinians seem to have concluded that there is nothing to be gained
from talks with Israel: if anything is to be achieved it will only be through
armed struggle[32],
jihad. The historical antagonisms between the Jews and the Muslims from early
times is also carried over to this period with great mistrust of Jews by
Muslims who believe that they are inherently treacherous makes the conflict
escalate. The Israel state always uses heavy handed measures and does not think
that International law is binding to it. The Palestinians cause has largely
been left to the Palestinians alone and they feel also disenfranchised by the
Muslim world, which could be seen as reality. When the international community
woke up and tried to help by sending the Flotilla[33]
ship with aid food. It was attacked by Israel commandos and some activists were
killed[34].Another
humanitarian ship was headed to Gaza and was derailed.
As is reverse of the Afghan mujahedeen being
aided by the U.S in this conflict the U.S heavily aids Israel in military
hardware, foreign military financing and backs them up in the Security Council
deliberations. This then therefore seems as a Judeo-Christian crusade against
Muslims and hence creates more bad blood and conflict escalation. The
assassinations of Sheikh Ahmed Yassin an aged cripple by use of a missile is
deplorable but the IDF does it again and again this pushes the Palestinians to
the wall and with the above mentioned circumstances it would be considered
highly legitimate for Palestinian Muslims to resort to violence as a means to
self-determination and decolonization.
The Palestinian case is always sited yet other
peoples live in Occupation such as Kashmiris, Chechens, Somalis (after the 2006
invasion by Ethiopia) the Bosnian Muslims and the Iraqis under U.S occupation
all serve to show that Muslims around the world are under occupation, oppressed
and forced to carry the yoke of capitalism instead of having a free will to
undertake their own developments. The current laws passed in European states[35]
on fining and incarcerating women that wear the burqa in public is a major bone
of contention that will lead to more intercultural conflicts.
The reality is that Palestinian land was taken
from them and millions of poor Palestinians; women and children have been
indiscriminately killed, maimed, raped and tortured just for being Palestinians
while the international community did not blink an eyelid but continue in their
squalor, drink and make merry but when some people try to free themselves by
any means necessary, they are deemed as terrorists. This is quite unfortunate
and with the publicity and media machinery the Israelis easily spin, twist and
maneuver the reality of the occupation on the ground similar to India’s spinning
of events in Kashmir.
CONCLUSIONS
The limited cases highlight oppression of or aggression against Muslims. In each case armed
struggle was the only way for liberation of their motherland and to gain back
any dignity bereft of them. The use of armed struggle has been a last resort
after all other avenues failed. The Palestinians abandoned armed struggles in
different periods when it appeared as if Israel was serious about talks and
they would be able to achieve their goals through that peaceful route.
The hypocritical nature of a sensationalist
media also fuels the antagonisms. If a bomb blows up in the Congo, it is rarely
reported as being a terrorist act but if the same happens in Iraq or Somalia
for example it is automatically treated as an Islamic terrorist attack.
The portrayal of jihad in Western and other
media is quite removed from reality. It is never, as popularly represented, a
religiously-motivated aggressive war against 'innocent' non-Muslims, with the
aim of spreading Islam by force. Jihad in reality, wherever it is found, is a
struggle for freedom, against aggression and oppression, and for human rights[36].
For young Muslims there is much resentment of
the West for they rightly perceive a new Western colonialism on Muslim states
through western military interventions as in the case of Afghanistan, Iraq, Palestine,
Chechnya and also as the Muslims who hope for a unified ummah are oppressed and
targeted even by their own Muslim leaders in states such as Egypt and Saudi
Arabia that are staunch western allies. The current killings, maimings and
deaths of innocent civilians in Iraq and Afghanistan is also fuelling anger
from Muslims directed to western states and Israel.
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[1] Surah tul Nisa
[2]
O'Connor, T. DEFINITIONS, TYPOLOGIES, AND
TYPES OF TERRORISM, http Last updated: Dec. 28, 2009Not an official webpage of APSU, copyright
restrictions apply, see Megalinks in Criminal Justice (Date of Last Update at bottom of page).
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browser), MegaLinks in Criminal Justice. Retrieved from
http://www.apsu.edu/oconnort/rest of URL accessed on 5/30/2010
[3] "United
States' Invasion of Afghanistan", Ohio History Central, July 1, 2005, http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=1617 http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=1617&nm=United-States-Invasion-of-Afghanistan
[4] See, e.g., CNN.COM, Source:
Hijacking Suspects Linked to Afghanistan, at http//www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/29/gen.america.under.attack/
(Sept. 30, 2001).
[5] Taliban: Assault a
‘Terrorist Attack’, at http://www.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/central/10/07/taliban.statement.ap/
(Oct. 8, 2001). The worst perpetration of all world terrorism, according to bin
Laden, is carried out by the U.S. Yoram Schweitzer, Osama bin Ladin:
Wealth Plus Extremism Equals Terrorism, at http://www.ict.org.il/articles/binladin.htm
(July 27, 1998). Terrorism’s constituent elements, that is, the use of violence
for political goals with the intent to spread fear among noncombatant targets
are clear to many people.
[6]Schmid on the Consensus definition
of terrorism. Availble on http://www.apsu.edu/oconnort/3400/3400lect01.htm
[7]
Ibid....
[8]
Charles Tilly,. Terror, Terrorism,
Terrorists: Sociological Theory, Vol. 22, No. 1, Theories of Terrorism: A
Symposium (Mar., 2004), pp. 1 .American
Sociological Association Available at URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3648955 Accessed: 24/07/2010 00:54
[9] Ibid…
[10] William Blum
(2000) Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower. Common Courage
Press: U.S. Available http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Blum/Free_Country.html
.Acessed on 7/24/2010.
[11]
Samuel P.
Huntington The Clash of
Civilizations? Foreign Affairs Summer 1993 Available http://history.club.fatih.edu.tr/103%20Huntington%20Clash%20of%20Civilizations%20full%20text.htm
Accessed on 7/24/2010.
[13]
La Illah Ila
Allah Mohamed u rasululah.The first pillar of Islam.
[14]
Islam the Empire of Islam.Part 12.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Azsrxq8jid4&feature=related
[15]
Ibid....
[16] Upon his
return from battle Muhammad said, "We have returned from the
lesser jihad to the greater jihad (i.e. the struggle
against the evil of one's soul). Jihad Tul Nafs. Suhaib Hasan, An Introduction to the Science of
Hadith, (London: Al-Quran Society, 1994) Also Cited in
Streusand, Douglas, 'What does Jihad Mean?', Middle East Quarterly, September
1997.
[19] Surah 49,
v. 9
[20] Surah al-Baqarah, v. 194
[21] Surah an-Nisa, v. 75
[22]
Surah al-Baqarah, v.
208
[23] Dr.
Iffat Malik, Farzana Noshab, Sadaf Abdullah. JIHAD IN THE MODERN ERA: IMAGE AND REALITY. Available http://www.issi.org.pk/islamabadPaper_Detail.php?dataId=1
Accesed 7/24/2010
[24]
Ibid....
[25]
Ibid.....
[26]
Ibid.....
[27] Many muslims and jihadist
site this as an example of the power of the muslims and the Ummah in general
defeating a world superpower which had all the technological and military
power.
[28]
Dr. Iffat
Malik, Farzana Noshab, Sadaf Abdullah.
JIHAD IN THE MODERN ERA: IMAGE AND REALITY. Available http://www.issi.org.pk/islamabadPaper_Detail.php?dataId=1
Accesed 7/24/2010
[30]
CIA FACT BOOK
PALESTINE.Available:https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gz.htmlAccessed
on 7/24/2010.
[31]Dr. Iffat Malik,
Farzana Noshab, Sadaf Abdullah. JIHAD
IN THE MODERN ERA: IMAGE AND REALITY. Available http://www.issi.org.pk/islamabadPaper_Detail.php?dataId=1 Accesed 7/24/2010
[32]
Ibid.....
[34]
Ibid..
[35]
Belgium,France and the UK Legislative
deliberations.
[36]
Dr. Iffat
Malik, Farzana Noshab, Sadaf Abdullah.
JIHAD IN THE MODERN ERA: IMAGE AND REALITY. Available http://www.issi.org.pk/islamabadPaper_Detail.php?dataId=1 Accesed 7/24/2010
